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Comparative analysis of vaccines against deoxyribonucleic and ribonucleic viruses: Development, immunogenicity, efficacy, and post-vaccination surveillance with Indian perspective
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Received: ,
Accepted: ,
How to cite this article: Bhattacharya SP. Comparative analysis of vaccines against deoxyribonucleic and ribonucleic viruses: Development, immunogenicity, efficacy, and post-vaccination surveillance with Indian perspective. Med India. doi: 10.25259/MEDINDIA_48_2025
Abstract
Vaccination remains one of the most effective public health interventions for the prevention and control of viral diseases. Advances in molecular biology have led to the development of novel vaccine platforms targeting both DNA and RNA viruses. This study paper presents a comparative analysis of vaccines developed against DNA viruses and RNA viruses, focusing on differences in vaccine development strategies, immunogenicity, efficacy, safety profiles, and post-vaccination surveillance, including adverse events. Special emphasis is placed on the Indian public health perspective, considering indigenous vaccine development, programmatic feasibility, and surveillance mechanisms. Understanding these differences is essential for informed vaccine policy, improved preparedness for emerging infections, and strengthening immunization programs in low- and middle-income countries like India.
Keywords
DNA virus vaccine
Immunogenecity
Messenger RNA vaccine
RNA virus vaccine
Vaccine efficacy
INTRODUCTION
Viruses are broadly classified based on their genetic material into DNA and RNA viruses. This fundamental distinction influences viral replication, mutation rates, host immune responses, and, consequently, vaccine development strategies. While DNA viruses such as smallpox and hepatitis B have long-established vaccines, RNA viruses such as influenza and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) have posed unique challenges due to their high mutation rates. Recent technological advancements have enabled the rapid development of nucleic acid vaccines, particularly messenger RNA (mRNA) and DNA vaccines, reshaping global immunization strategies.[1]
VACCINE DEVELOPMENT
Vaccines against RNA viruses
Vaccines targeting RNA viruses commonly utilize platforms such as inactivated viruses, viral vectors, protein subunits, and, more recently, mRNA. mRNA vaccines encode viral antigens and are delivered into host cells using lipid nanoparticles, where the antigen is translated in the cytoplasm. These vaccines can be developed rapidly once the viral genome is sequenced, eliminating the need for live virus culture. This approach proved transformative during the COVID-19 pandemic.[1,2]
Vaccines against DNA viruses
DNA vaccines consist of plasmids encoding viral antigens. After administration, the plasmid must enter the host cell nucleus to undergo transcription into mRNA, followed by protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. This additional nuclear entry step poses a biological barrier, often requiring enhanced delivery systems such as electroporation. However, DNA vaccines are relatively stable, easier to manufacture, and less demanding in terms of cold-chain logistics.[3]
IMMUNOGENICITY
RNA virus vaccines, especially mRNA-based vaccines, elicit robust humoral and cellular immune responses due to efficient intracellular antigen expression and activation of innate immunity. Modified nucleosides are often used to reduce excessive inflammatory responses and enhance stability.
In contrast, DNA vaccines have historically demonstrated lower immunogenicity in humans, despite strong responses in animal models. Advances in plasmid design, adjuvants, and delivery technologies are improving immune responses, but they generally remain less potent than mRNA vaccines.
VACCINE EFFICACY
Vaccines against RNA viruses have demonstrated high efficacy, particularly mRNA vaccines against SARS-CoV-2, which showed efficacy exceeding 90% in preventing severe disease during initial trials. However, efficacy may decline over time due to viral mutations, necessitating booster doses.
DNA vaccines have shown moderate to good efficacy. India’s ZyCoV-D, a DNA vaccine against COVID-19, demonstrated protective efficacy but generally lower than that of mRNA vaccines. Nevertheless, DNA vaccines contribute significantly to population-level protection, especially where logistical constraints limit mRNA vaccine deployment.
SAFETY PROFILE AND SIDE EFFECTS
RNA virus vaccines
Common side effects include local pain, fever, fatigue, and myalgia, reflecting strong immune activation. Rare adverse events such as myocarditis and pericarditis have been reported, particularly in younger populations, and are closely monitored through surveillance systems. Importantly, mRNA does not integrate into host DNA and is rapidly degraded.
DNA virus vaccines
DNA vaccines are generally well tolerated, with mild local and systemic reactions. Theoretical concerns regarding genomic integration exist, but extensive studies indicate that such events are extremely rare. Overall, DNA vaccines have a favorable safety profile.[4]
POST-VACCINATION SURVEILLANCE
Post-vaccination surveillance is critical for detecting rare adverse events not identified during clinical trials. Surveillance systems assess vaccine safety, effectiveness, and duration of protection. For RNA virus vaccines, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic, active and passive surveillance systems identified rare side effects early, enabling timely policy adjustments. DNA vaccine surveillance data are expanding as their use increases.
INDIAN PUBLIC HEALTH PERSPECTIVE
India’s public health framework plays a pivotal role in vaccine development, deployment, and safety monitoring due to its large population and diverse health infrastructure. The Universal Immunization Programme ensures broad vaccine coverage, while public–private partnerships have positioned India as a global vaccine manufacturing hub.
Indigenous vaccine development
India has demonstrated leadership in vaccine innovation through institutions such as Serum Institute of India, Bharat Biotech, and Zydus Lifesciences. The development of ZyCoV-D, the world’s first approved plasmid DNA vaccine, marked a milestone in DNA vaccine technology and aligned with the national “Atmanirbhar Bharat” initiative.[5]
Programmatic feasibility
While RNA vaccines offer superior immunogenicity, their stringent cold-chain requirements pose challenges in rural and remote areas. DNA vaccines, with greater thermal stability, are more compatible with India’s public health logistics, making them attractive for large-scale immunization campaigns.
Surveillance and safety monitoring
India’s adverse events following immunization surveillance system, coordinated by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, has been strengthened through digital platforms and integration with pharmacovigilance networks. During COVID-19 vaccination drives, robust surveillance ensured early detection of adverse events and reinforced public confidence.
Equity and community engagement
Vaccine acceptance in India depends heavily on effective risk communication and community engagement. Frontline health workers such as accredited social health activists and auxiliary nurse midwives play a crucial role in addressing vaccine hesitancy, educating communities about side effects, and ensuring equitable vaccine access.
DISCUSSION
RNA and DNA vaccine platforms offer complementary strengths. RNA vaccines enable rapid response to emerging pathogens with high efficacy, while DNA vaccines offer logistical advantages and long-term stability. In resource-limited settings like India, a diversified vaccine portfolio enhances resilience against pandemics and endemic viral diseases.
CONCLUSION
Vaccines against RNA viruses have revolutionized rapid pandemic response due to their strong immunogenicity and fast development timelines. DNA vaccines, although less immunogenic, provide advantages in safety, stability, and scalability. Integrating both platforms within national immunization strategies, supported by strong surveillance systems, is essential for sustainable public health protection, particularly in India.
Author contributions:
SPB: Contributed to study conceptualization, manuscript preparation, and methodology design; was responsible for data collection and compilation, overall study supervision, and finalization of the draft for submission.
Ethical approval:
Institutional Review Board approval is not required, since the study did not involve human participants or animal subjects.
Declaration of patient consent:
Patient’s consent not required as there are no patients in this study.
Conflicts of interest:
There are no conflicts of interest.
Use of artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted technology for manuscript preparation:
The author confirms that there was no use of artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted technology for assisting in the writing or editing of the manuscript and no images were manipulated using AI.
Financial support and sponsorship: Nil.
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